Environment Protection

Swedish urban areas are small by international standards. The largest, Greater Stockholm, has about 1.6 million people. Factories are widely scattered around the country and there are few large, cohesive industrial zones. Sweden is unusually well-endowed with water: its lakes contain about 600,000 million m3, while households and companies consume only 4,000 million m3 of water per year. Patterns of settlement in Sweden have nevertheless changed radically during the 20th century. In 1900, around 30% of the population lived in cities and towns; at the end of the century, the figure will reach about 90%.

Major threats to the environment
Based on the environmental goals adopted by the Swedish Parliament (Riksdag), the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the National Chemicals Inspectorate have focused their efforts on combating the following 14 environmental threats.

Greenhouse gases
The overall goal is to limit the climate change caused by humans, so as not to harm man and the environment.

Emissions of greenhouse gases are a global environmental problem and have the same effects no matter where on earth they occur. Global mean temperature has risen during the past century. This rise is of the order of magnitude that can be expected due to a mounting greenhouse effect. More specific goals, among others, are:
—to achieve stabilization of emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels in accordance with the UN Convention on Climate Change at the 1990 level in the year 2000, whereafter emission levels should fall.
—Methane emissions from sanitary landfills should decrease by 30% by the year 2000.

Depletion of the ozone layer
The overall goal is to prevent harmful ultraviolet radiation from damaging ecological systems and human health, due to the depletion of the protective layer of ozone in the stratosphere.

The destruction of the ozone layer is expected to occur most rapidly near the North and South Poles, making countries near the poles especially vulnerable. The goals, among others, are:
—to limit and finally phase out the use of CFCs (Freons) and HCFCs.
—to phase out the use of halons as fire extinguishing agents.

Acidification of water and soil
The overall goal is to limit acid rain to levels that do not harm nature and human health. Sweden is strongly affected by airborne emissions from elsewhere in Europe. The soil is low in calcium, which makes it sensitive to acidification. The critical load, which by definition is a quantitative estimate of the exposure to one or more pollutants at which harmful effects on the environment can be observed, is exceeded in almost all of Sweden.

In order for the sulphur load in Sweden to fall below the critical load, emissions of sulphur in Europe must diminish by 70% compared with 1990.

One fifth of the lakes and watercourses in Sweden have been damaged by acidification. To counteract acidification, these bodies of water are being treated with lime. Liming has significantly reduced the effects on the surface water. The goals, among others, are:
—to reduce sulphur emissions.
—to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions.

Photochemical oxidants and ground-level ozone
The overall goal is to limit photochemical oxidants to levels that do not harm human health, crops, forests or the useful life of materials. The formation of photochemical oxidants is a widespread phenomenon attributable to the emission of volatile hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. This is a major problem on the European Continent, and the oxidants formed there are carried by winds to Sweden. Oxidants are also formed in Sweden, especially downwind from large cities and towns. Concentrations of photochemical oxidants, mainly ozone, are periodically in excess of what human health and the environment can tolerate. The goals are:
—to decrease emissions of volatile organic compounds.
—to decrease emissions of nitrogen oxides.

Urban air pollution and noise
The overall goal is to limit air pollution and noise to levels that do not damage human health or ecological systems.

The number of people and level of activity in cities and towns lead to locally high pollution and noise levels. In and around Swedish population centers, these levels occasionally exceed maximum acceptable levels from the standpoint of health and the environment. Air pollution also threatens to damage valuable cultural environments. The goals, among others, are:
—Noise in urban areas should diminish so that it is below the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency´s guidelines.
—By the year 2000, the concentrations of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, soot and particulates should be below the target values set by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.

. Eutrophication of water and nitrogen saturation of soil
The overall goal is to preserve viable and balanced populations of naturally occurring species in and around bodies of water. Pollution should not limit the use of water from lakes and streams. The situation is particularly serious around major conurbations and in agricultural districts. In lakes and seas, eutrophication causes not only algal blooms and changes in species composition, but also excessive seaweed growth and poorer water quality for swimming.

The soil is also affected. The flora has changed in many woods, meadows and pastures where nitrogen-loving species have spread. The goals, among others, are:
—Waterborne emissions of nitrogen from human activities must be reduced.
—Ammonia emissions must be reduced.

Effects of metals
The overall goal is to prevent certain metals in the ground and water from building up to levels that harm human health or ecological processes, even in a long-range perspective.

Heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium and lead can cause damage to plants and animals. Since they accumulate in the food chain, high concentrations also pose a threat to man.

The large, and constantly increasing, quantities of metals in industrial products, waste and contaminated soil pose a potential threat to the environment in the future. Among others, the following goals have been specified:
—The use of mercury should eventually be phased out.
—The use of lead should eventually be phased out.
—The use of cadmium must be sharply reduced.

Effects of persistent organic pollutants
The overall goal is to prevent organic poisons from adversely affecting the environment or human health. Substances of this kind are increasingly being used. They may also be formed as unwanted by-products of technical processes.

Emissions of persistent organic pollutants should be limited, so that by the turn of the century a level is reached that does not harm the environment. Persistent organic and hazardous substances should eventually be eliminated from the environment.

Introduction and spread of alien organisms
The overall goal is that alien species and genetically modified organisms should be introduced with great restrictiveness and under careful control, so that the habitats of indigenous flora and fauna are not jeopardized.

The development and use of genetically modified organisms is expected to become increasingly important in the future, in both Sweden and other countries. A permit has been required for the release of genetically modified plants since 1989, and for the release of biological control agents since 1993. Since 1994, Sweden has had a comprehensive Genetic Engineering Act.

Inappropriate use of land and water resources for production and supply
The overall goal is that natural resources should be managed in a long-term sustainable fashion. To ensure sustainable management of natural resources, it is important in agriculture and forestry to follow certain environmental practices. Among the goals that have been specified are:

—The natural productivity of the forest soil must be preserved. Biological diversity and genetic variation in the forest must be safeguarded. The cultural environmental values of the forest as well as its aesthetic and social values must be defended.
—The long-range productivity of farmland that is used for food and biofuel production should be utilized in such a way that future resumption of food production is possible, or in order to recreate valuable ecosystem types that have disappeared as a result of cultivation.

Exploitation of land and water for housing, industry and infrastructure
One overall goal is to ensure good long-range management of land and water resources, promote long-range sensible siting of buildings, plants and infrastructure, and develop a rich and living urban environment, while showing concern for the natural ecocycles in urban and rural planning. Among more specific goals are:
— In the future, urban areas should be planned more clearly in compliance with existing environmental rules.
—The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has formulated quality goals for lakes and watercourses. In order to achieve and maintain good water quality in Sweden, these quality goals should be integrated in the decisions made by the county administrative boards.

Pressures on areas of special conservation interest
One overall goal is that representative areas of all types of ecosystem occurring in Sweden be safeguarded. There are around 50,000 species of plants, fungi and animals in Sweden. That is about 3% of the total number of species in the world. More than 200 species have disappeared from Sweden since the end of the last century. In most cases, the immediate reasons why a species is displaced and rendered extinct are change or destruction of its habitat. Specific goals, among others, are:
—Priority should be given to the protection of old-growth forests, wetlands and cultivated landscape. Land should be safeguarded and made more accessible for recreation and outdoor activities, especially around urban areas.
—Animal and plant communities should be preserved so that species of plants and animals native to Sweden are enabled to survive in their natural habitats and in viable populations.

Non-cyclic material flows, wastes and environmentally hazardous residues
One prerequisite for achieving long-term sustainable development as far as goods and products are concerned is to persuade all sectors of society to alter their behavior from being polluting and consuming to defending the environment and natural resources. The flow of materials in society is far too unidirectional today, from extraction of raw materials to landfilling with wastes. In the future, producers ought to design goods and products so that they can be used, reused and recycled in a natural ecocycle without harming human health or the environment. The goal, among others, is:
—Measures in agriculture and forestry, in the transport sector, in the energy supply sector and in industry should be aimed at a resource-efficient ecocycle society.

Detoxification of the ecocycle
The work for a better environment starts already when chemicals and other products are manufactured. The least hazardous chemicals and production methods should be used in order to detoxify the ecocycle. Sweden has three overarching objectives for chemicals control supervised by the Inspectorate:
—Chemical substances and preparations must be sufficiently investigated as regards their effects on health and the environment, and their occurrence and flow structure in society. Information about the risks must be possessed by everyone who handles these chemical substances and preparations.
—Harmful substances should as far as possible be replaced with less harmful ones. —Hazards to health and the environment are to be eliminated through the safe handling of chemical substances and preparations.

Manufacturers and importers of chemical products have the main responsibility for chemicals control, whereas the Inspectorate supervises the handling, importation and exportation of chemical substances and preparations.

Pesticides pose a special threat to man and the environment and must be approved by the Inspectorate in order to be used in Sweden. The use of pesticides in agriculture has been cut by more than 50%.

Special risk reduction programs aim at minimizing the use and risks of chemical substances such as mercury, chlorinated solvents, lead and plastic additives. Sweden applies both binding regulations on the classification and labelling of dangerous substances and more informative methods in the form of reports and lists of hazardous chemicals.

The chemical trade is international and the flow of emissions from the use of chemical products crosses national borders. It is therefore necessary to work on an international scale with chemicals control. Sweden is active in OECD and UN organizations. As a new member of the European Union, Sweden takes part in the joint work on classification and labelling of substances and the EU program for existing substances. The European Commission has started to review EU rules for possible amendments in areas where Sweden has more stringent legislation, mainly some 60 chemical substances and groups of substances that Sweden considers harmful to health, Sweden’s criteria for classification of carcinogenic substances and its use of the additional category “moderately harmful.”

Radiation
The overriding aim is for people, animals and the environment to be protected from harmful effects of radiation.

In the environmental context, this means, for example, the National Radiation Protection Institute undertaking research, supervision and public information in order to
—prevent damage being caused by solar irradiation,
—helping to reduce the radon content of homes and workplaces,
—monitoring and measuring radiation in our environment,
—maintaining constant preparedness for dealing with radiation accidents.

Public agencies and environmental organizations
The chief responsibility for environmental matters at government level is vested in the Ministry of Environment (Miljödepartementet). Its responsibilities include nature conservancy, environmental protection, chemical control, environmental research, radiation protection, as well as land use and physical planning.

The Ministry is also responsible for coordinating issues mainly handled by other ministries. An environment advisory council at the Ministry acts as an informational and consultative body.

The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket, SEPA) is the central administrative agency for nature conservancy and environmental protection issues. The Agency´s main tasks are:
—To work out goals, provide guidance, coordinate and monitor the environmental efforts of sectoral government agencies, as well as the regional and local authorities.
—To ensure the effective compilation and dissemination of environmental knowledge through research and monitoring.
—To participate in international environmental protection programs.
—To analyze and take the economic, legal and international aspects of environmental actions into account.
—To monitor environmental interests in the enforcement of the Building and Planning Act and the Natural Resources Act.

The Agency has two research boards which allocate grants and administer research on environmental protection and waste issues. It also has a board responsible for monitoring changes in the environment.

The Agency´s responsibilities include playing a major role in protecting water and air quality as well as enforcing noise pollution measures. Among other things, it is the national public agency responsible for enforcing a number of environmental laws.

The Agency consults and cooperates with other sectoral agencies whose activities overlap with nature conservancy and environmental protection. The Agency is responsible for coordinating and drafting environmental plans for these sectors.

The National Licensing Board for Environment Protection (Koncessionsnämnden för miljöskydd) is a central government agency that examines permit applications for the largest, most environmentally hazardous activities, under the provisions of the Environment Protection Act. After hearing the views of all parties concerned, the Board decides what conditions will apply to these activities.

The National Chemicals Inspectorate (Kemikalieinspektionen, KemI) is the supervising agency responsible for enforcing the Act on Chemical Products. It coordinates national activities and promotes international efforts in the field of chemicals control. The Inspectorate’s main branches of activity are the limitation of risks related to chemicals and pesticides, supervision of manufacturers and importers of chemicals, as well as providing guidance to local and regional environmental authorities and improving the level of knowledge concerning chemicals.

The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) handles matters related to national physical planning and other types of planning that also require paying heed to nature conservancy and environmental protection interests, for example the role of air pollution and noise in traffic planning.

The Swedish Board of Agriculture (Jordbruksverket) is responsible for environmental and nature conservancy issues under the Act for the Management of Agricultural Land. It is also the government agency that issues permits for international trade in wild animals and plants.

The National Board of Forestry (Skogsvårdsstyrelsen) is very much involved in land use issues. By means of regulations and general advisory services, it has established a body of practices based on the environment protection provisions of the Forestry Act.

The tasks of the Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development (Närings- och teknikutvecklingsverket) include working to adapt Sweden's energy supply system to environmental and resource-conservation requirements.

The duties of the National Radiation Protection Institute (Strålskyddsinstitutet) include responsibility for radiation protection in connection with the production of nuclear power.

The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (Sveriges meteorologiska och hydrologiska institut, SMHI) gathers and stores data on national water resources. It also participates in efforts to analyze the long-distance dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere and waterways.

The National Board of Fisheries (Fiskeristyrelsen) monitors the environmental situation of fisheries and marine life and participates in the Environmental Protection Agency's anti-acidification program.

Sweden's 24 county administrative boards (länsstyrelse), which are regional branches of the central government, are responsible for environmental protection in their respective territories. They decide issues related to environmentally hazardous activities in those cases where the National Licensing Board for Environment Protection does not have jurisdiction, and they are responsible for supervising these activities. Small-scale hazardous activities are supervised by the municipal authorities, however.

The county administrative boards are responsible for continuously monitoring environmental quality in their areas. They are also responsible in their areas for enforcing the Act on Chemical Products and are entrusted with other tasks under the Building and Planning Act, the Natural Resources Act, the Water Act, the Act on Public Installations Concerning Water Supply and Sewage, and other legislation. They also make decisions regarding nature reserves, nature conservation areas, natural landmarks, protected shoreline areas, and bird and seal sanctuaries.

Sweden's 288 municipalities (kommun) play a very important role in environmental protection work today. Parliament has underscored this fact by granting municipal governments the right to limit emissions and other environmental hazards from many activities they were not previously allowed to influence directly. Altogether these add up to tens of thousands of pollution sources, which the public sector has had little effective control over until now.

Each municipal government must see to it that industry, traffic, waste management and energy use take health and environmental considerations into account. Their environment and public health committees as well as their building committees bear the main responsibility for local environmental matters.

In addition to public agencies, there are many voluntary organizations in the environmental protection field. The oldest of these is the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen), established in 1909, but in recent decades such organizations as the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Keep Sweden Tidy Foundation, Fältbiologerna (a youth association for environmental studies and conservation), The Natural Step, the Swedish NGO Secretariat for Acid Rain, Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, and the Green Party have appeared on the scene. They actively monitor environmental issues, distribute information and carry out opinion-molding work at the local and national levels.

Major environmental laws and control mechanisms
The Nature Conservation Act (1964) affirms that the natural environment is a national asset to be protected and preserved, that it is open to everyone under the right of common access (see below), and that nature conservancy is both a national and a local government concern. The law makes it possible to set aside various types of protected natural area. The Act also contains provisions to protect natural environments, plants and animals, and outdoor recreation and to prevent littering.

The Environment Protection Act (1969) brings together a set of regulations on various kinds of environmental hazard originating from permanent facilities. The basic principle is that such hazards should be prevented as far as practically possible. The obligation to take protective measures should be decided on the basis of what is technically feasible. The authorities enforcing the Act may impose injunctions, in some cases with fines for non-compliance, or they may prohibit activities if the conditions governing them are not observed.

The Marine Dumping Prohibition Act (1971) prohibits all waste discharges (solid, liquid or gas) from ships and other craft in Swedish territorial waters.

The Act and Ordinance on Sulphur Content in Fuel Oil (1976) are designed to limit emissions of sulphur dioxide from the combustion of heating oil and other fuels containing sulphur. The ordinance contains regulations on the highest permitted sulphur emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. For heating oil, these regulations mean that sulphur content may not exceed 0.8% by weight.

The Waste Collection and Disposal Act and Cleansing Ordinance (1979) are based on a general rule of prudence, stating that waste must be managed in such a way as not to create a nuisance from the public health and environmental protection standpoint.

The Water Act (1983) opens with a general declaration that water must be protected and conserved as a shared natural resource. The law contains a number of regulations important to nature conservancy efforts.

The Act on Chemical Products (1985) aims at preventing hazards to human health or the environment caused by the inherent properties of chemical substances. The Act applies to all handling, importation and exportation of chemical products. The emphasis is on the marketing of chemical products, but the Act covers all stages of a chemical’s life- cycle. The Act is based on the precautionary principle and the principle of substitution, which implies always choosing the least hazardous substances. Chemical products must be thoroughly investigated, classified and labelled.

The Environmental Damage Act (1986) relates to claims for indemnity and presupposes for its application that damage has occurred. Under this Act, compensation is payable for damage or injury caused to the environment by the owner or occupant of real property.

The Vehicle Emission Act (1986) and Ordinance (1987) are designed to prevent cars and other motor vehicles from causing damage to human health or to the environment due to emissions of exhaust gases and other airborne substances.

The Natural Resources Act (1987) stipulates that soil, water and other elements of the physical environment must be used in ways that promote good long-term management from an ecological, social and macroeconomic standpoint.

Sweden's Penal Code (1962) contains penalty clauses for environmental violations and a number of other regulations for protecting the natural environment. For example, breaking branches from trees or removing bark, leaves, nuts or the like may be punishable by law.

In principle, the right of common access is not regulated by law, but is more of a traditional principle. It means that everyone is entitled to move freely about the countryside as well as pass across and spend time on someone else's land and water without specific permission. A person is also entitled to pick berries, flowers and mushrooms and to swim or go ashore. The right only applies, however, on the condition that people do not cause damage or disturbance to the owners or occupants.

The government must use direct and indirect control mechanisms to promote environmentally sound activities in all areas of society. Administrative control mechanisms include legislation, review of permit applications, monitoring of environmentally hazardous activities, administrative injunctions or other sanctions.

In recent years, economic control mechanisms have gained in importance. They include:
—Government grants, e.g. to develop new environmental protection technology.
—Emission charges, e.g. on sulphur and nitrogen oxides as well as carbon dioxide.
—Production charges, e.g. on fertilizers. —Taxes and refundable deposits, e.g. on beverage containers and batteries.
—Environmental protection charges, water pollution charges.
—Fines and penalties for violations.

International environmental protection work
International environmental cooperation is mainly an extension of Sweden´s national environmental protection work. Sweden must exert influence on other countries in order to meet national targets for protection. Many threats to the Swedish natural environment are predominantly caused by emission sources abroad. Sweden must also share responsibility with other countries in order to abate major global environmental problems. International environmental cooperation is consequently a high priority in Swedish overall environmental policy.

Sweden has a long record of active participation in international environmental efforts to reach binding international regional and global agreements to ensure the highest possible protection for terrestrial and marine environments. Sweden is party to a large number of international environmental conventions and protocols for environmental protection and nature conservation. Since 1995, a growing proportion of Sweden´s international work in this field has taken place within the framework of the EU. The following four issues are Swedish priorities on the environmental agenda in the EU:

—measures to combat acidification and climate change,
—resource management and product recycling,
—conservation of biological diversity,
—more stringent requirements as regards chemical control.

Swedish development assistance in Central and Eastern Europe and elsewhere is, where applicable, tied to environmental goals.

Further information in English on environmental issues can be obtained from:
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket, SEPA)
S-106 48 STOCKHOLM, Sweden
Phone: +46 8 698 10 00
Fax: +46 8 20 29 25

This fact sheet is part of SI´s information service. It can be used as background information on condition that the source is acknowledged.


Fact Sheets on Sweden