The Instrument of Government is the most important constitutional document. It went into effect in 1975, when it replaced the 1809 Instrument of Government. The new Constitution brought about no radical changes in the prevailing system of government. The reform largely involved a formal incorporation of current practices into the written Constitution. Thus, the new Constitution is consistently based on the principles of popular sovereignty, representative democracy, and parliamentarism. A Parliament elected by the people occupies the pre-eminent position among the branches of government; it is the foundation for the democratic exercise of power through the Cabinet.
The reforming of the Constitution did not end with the enactment of the new Instrument of Government. In 1976 and 1979, Parliament passed laws amending the Constitution. The aim of both amendments was to strengthen the constitutional protection of the human rights and fundamental freedoms. The new Freedom of Expression Act protects freedom of expression on the radio and television, in films, videos and sound recordings, etc., and is based on the same principles as the Freedom of the Press Act. Thus, for example, the ban on censorship and freedom of establishment now apply to the entire field of modern mass media. Only when it comes to the use of radio broadcasting frequencies, might the principle of freedom of establishment not apply as it does for the freedom of the press. Further, films and videos for public screening may also be subject to preliminary scrutiny.
In 1994 the Instrument of Government was amended in order to make it possible for Sweden to join the European Union. The agreement on Sweden's entry into the EU was ratified by Parliament in December that year.
In 1979, the Act of Succession was amended in order to give males and females equal rights to the throne. As from 1980, this right belongs to the first-born, regardless of gender.
At times, independent experts are called upon to serve on the Cabinet. As a rule, however, the ministers are representatives of the political party or parties in power. In many cases they are members of Parliament, retaining their seats in Parliament while serving on the Cabinet. A substitute takes over the parliamentary duties of any MP who has been appointed to the Cabinet, and this continues as long as the MP remains in the Cabinet. In other words, a Cabinet minister has to give up his right to vote in Parliament. All ministers are, however, entitled to take part in parliamentary debates.
According to the Constitution, the formal power of governmental decision rests with the Cabinet, not the monarch. If the Cabinet has resigned, the Speaker of Parliament is required to confer with the leaders of the parliamentary parties and with the Deputy Speakers before proposing a new Prime Minister. Parliament then votes on this proposal. If an absolute majority votes against the proposal, it is considered to have failed. Otherwise it is considered approved. The Speaker thereupon appoints the Prime Minister, who in turn appoints all other Cabinet ministers. If the Prime Minister so requests, the Speaker can discharge him. The same applies if Parliament declares that the Prime Minister does not enjoy its confidence. Other Cabinet ministers may be dismissed either by the Prime Minister or by Parliament through a vote of no confidence.
Once a week, the formal decisions of the Government are made at a meeting presided over by the Prime Minister. All important decisions to be made by the Government are subject to previous discussion by the Cabinet as a whole. Plenary meetings under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister are normally held one to three times a week. At these meetings, top officials often introduce the matters at hand and reply to questions raised by ministers, whereupon the Cabinet discussions and (informal) decisions proceed behind closed doors. No minutes are taken.
As a rule, Cabinet members lunch together in their private restaurant in the Government Office, where no guests are admitted. In practice, a great number of decisions are made quite informally at these luncheons after a briefing given by the minister concerned.
A third informal kind of Cabinet decision-making is when two or three ministers discuss a matterwith or without the presence of officials from their ministriesin order to reach agreement without taking up the time of the whole Cabinet.
The working methods thus described allow for a high degree of coordination between all the branches of Government in matters of policy. The officials of the ministries often meet one another in order to prepare decisions. Before becoming final and public, all decisions of interest to more than one ministry are commented upon by top officials of the ministries concerned. An important feature of the working methods of the Government is that all bills to be presented and important ministerial pronouncements (answers to questions, etc.) to be made in Parliament on behalf of the Government, are circulated beforehand to all ministers for their written comments. This system allows for exchange of information and discussion between Cabinet ministers and top officials before the formal decisions are taken.
This ministry has six divisions which deal with social insurance, children and families, social services, health care, the disabled and elderly, and administrative law. Four secretariats deal with planning and budgetary questions, international relations, long-term analysis and legal matters, fulfilling an advisory and coordinating function for the specialized units referred to above.
The highest-ranking officials of the ministry are the Under-Secretary of State (statssekreterare), the Permanent Under-Secretary (expeditionschef), and the Under-Secretary for Legal Affairs (rättschef).
The Under-Secretary of State is responsible to the minister for leading the work within the ministry. It is thus up to him to plan the ministry's work, to supervise the execution of this work and to establish the necessary coordination between the activities of the different ministerial units.
The Permanent Under-Secretary supervises the legality and consistency of administrative decisions to be made within the ministry and is responsible for the final drafting of Government decisions to be dispatched from the ministry.
The Under-Secretary for Legal Affairs is mainly responsible for the drafting of laws and regulations within the ministry's sphere of authority.
The Under-Secretaries of State are among the few political appointees of the ministries. An Under-Secretary's post as such does not entitle him to speak in Parliament, but there is a listener's seat for him in the assembly hall. The Under-Secretary represents the ministry and the minister. He is often a delegate to international conferences.
All officials of the ministries are appointed by the Cabinet (or by the minister concerned); Parliament has no right to intervene or pass judgment on the appointments.
In the case of a change of party or parties in office, limited changes take place in the cadre of officials. Under-Secretaries of State, political advisers and information officers are all recognized as political appointees and have to resign when there is a change of Government.
All civil servants in Sweden as well as military and police personnel are free to take part in political life and to hold political office.
Commissions may include members of Parliament, both from the Government and the Opposition, representatives of labor and management bodies or other organizations interested in the problems at hand, and experts from the scientific world or the administrative bodies concerned normally 510 people in all. The secretariatalthough in most cases organized as an independent officeis provided by the appropriate ministry, which also pays the expenses of the commission.
The commissions are given a high degree of freedom to pursue their inquiries through travel, hearings, research, etc. The proceedings are, in general, closed to the public - but are often closely followed by the press - until the day when they publish their printed report (betänkande). A commission often works for one or two years, sometimes longer. In many cases, the proposals of the commissions are unanimous, at least on matters of principle, but members may have alternative proposals printed in the report.
Every commission report is sent by the ministry concerned to various administrative agencies and non-governmental organizations for their official comments (remiss). Any organization, whether approached in this way or not, is free to make known its opinions to the ministry. The material thus assembled is reportedthough normally not in fullas background to Government bills to Parliament. Consequently, a bill is usually a heavy documentoften hundreds of pagesin which the Government has to argue its position in the light of a very thorough public discussion reproduced in the bill. MPs can easily discover whether or not the Government has followed the wishes or intentions brought to the fore by party representatives or the organizations they favor.
This method is cumbersome and often time-consuming. It is, however, considered to be a very valuable form of democratic government. The parties of the opposition, directly taking part in the preparation of political decisions, are given a chance to influence the Government before it takes its position.
Every such agency is headed by a director general appointed by the Government, as a rule for a period of six years at a time. Sometimes a director general is chosen from political circles. The board of an agency consists of the director general as chairman, a number of the senior officials serving under him and some laymen, representing organizations or sections of the population with special interest in the matters of the agency concerned. To some degree, politicians are also included in this lay element. Ministers or ministerial bodies cannot interfere with the agencies' handling of particular administrative cases. All board members are appointed by the Government, as are senior officials of the agencies. Lower level personnel are appointed by the board itself.
As a consequence of their independent position, the central agencies are expected to submit proposals to the Government regarding the policy to be followed by them. On the basis of their practical experience they often propose, in their respective fields, amendments to laws and regulations decided upon by Parliament and Government. Such recommendations by agencies are customarily circulated for examination and written comment in the same way as commission reports (see above).
Parliament has 349 members, who serve four-year terms. Eligibility to serve in Parliament is subject to Swedish citizenship and the attainment of voting age. All elections are by proportional representation. The electoral system is designed to ensure a distribution of seats between the parties in proportion to the votes cast for them nationally. Proportional fairness is not to be primarily achieved in each electoral district but in the whole country regarded as a single electoral district. Hence, in addition to 310 fixed electoral district seats, 39 seats are distributed "at large" so as to obtain a fair, nationally proportional result. However, the at-large seats are also filled by candidates from the parties' regular electoral rolls. There is one exception to the rule on complete national proportionality: a quota rule intended to prevent very small parties from gaining representation in Parliament. A party must thus gain at least 4% of the national vote to qualify for representation. In any one electoral district, however, a party will be allocated a number of the fixed seats by obtaining 12% of the votes, even if its national popular vote falls short of 4%.
A newly-elected Parliament commences its first session and term of office fifteen days after the election.
The trades and professions of Swedish society are fairly well represented in Parliament, although public sector employees are overrepresented. Following the 1994 election the proportion of women in Parliament has risen to 41%.
To perform the function of control that is so important for a representative assembly, Parliament may, with an absolute majority, pass a vote of no confidence leading either to the resignation of individual ministers or of the whole Government. However, a vote of no confidence is of no effect if the Government calls for new elections within one week.
The unicameral Parliament has a presidium consisting of the Speaker (talman) and three Deputy Speakers. Each newly-elected Parliament appoints for its four-year term at least fifteen standing committees (utskott), of which one is on the Constitution, one deals with budgeting and finance, one deals with taxes, and the remainder are specialized bodies, largely corresponding to the division of ministries. Additional committees may be constituted while Parliament is in session. On these committees parties are represented in proportion to their strength. Committees may allow Cabinet ministers to attend their meetings in order to provide information. Ministerial officials are often requested to attend such meetings in order to provide explanations and other relevant information.
Posts in the parliamentary presidium as well as the chairmanship of committees are - according to free agreement among the parties - generally distributed among the parties.
During the first fifteen days after the Government has presented its Budget Bill, individual members are entitled to introduce bills (motion) on any subject. After the delivery of each Government bill (proposition), a period of fifteen days is allotted to the MPs to propose amendments. All such bills and MPs' bills are referred to committees, where they are discussed thoroughly. Committees often invite written comments on MPs' bills or, occasionally, hold hearings on Government bills.
All matters dealt with in committee are reported to Parliament in plenary session. To kill a proposal in committee by sitting on a bill is not possible. Committee reports generally contain a thorough account of historical and other relevant facts connected with the proposal.
Cabinet members are expected to defend their bills in the plenary sessions. Ministers normally do not take part in the debates on individual members' bills. Such bills, when not related to a Government bill before Parliament, as a rule result in a request to the Government to investigate the issue raised or to put forward, for a future session, a proposal of a certain character.
Although the right of MPs to speak is practically unlimited, it is not possible - by filibustering or otherwise - to avoid decision on a matter which is before Parliament. The rules of procedure being very clear and detailed, procedural debates are very rare.
Parliament is in session for roughly eight months, the period mid-June - September being free. Committees normally meet on Tuesdays and Thursdays, while plenary sessions are held on Tuesdays through Thursdays.
The MPs have official substitutes. The substitute takes over the parliamentary duties of any MP who is a Cabinet minister or Speaker or who is absent for a month or longer. Because the Speaker has a substitute, he or she cannot (among other things) vote in Parliament. As coordinator of the work of Parliament, the Speaker is expected to stand above party politics.
In 1979, the Constitution was amended so that decisive referenda may be held on amendments to the Constitution. One third of the MPs can bring about such a referendum, which then shall be held simultaneously with the general elections. As yet, no such referendum has taken place.
The parties are well organized both in Parliament and outside. The Social Democratic Party is closely allied with the predominantly blue-collar Swedish Trade Union Confederation, LO, which has a number of Social Democratic representatives in Parliament.
Since 1966, State subsidies have been paid to every political party which has any significant support from the voters, as manifested in the general elections. These funds are paid in the form of "party subsidies" and "secretariat subsidies." A party is eligible for "party subsidies" if it has received at least one seat in Parliament or 2.6% of the votes throughout the whole country at either of the last two elections. To qualify for "secretariat subsidies," a party is required, in principle, either to have won a seat in Parliament in the last election or to have received at least 4% of the votes in the whole country at that election. The size of the subsidies is related to party strength. "Secretariat subsidies" are larger for opposition parties than for parties in office. A total of SEK 127.2 million will be distributed to the parties with seats in Parliament in fiscal 1994/95. No conditions are attached to the subsidies, nor is there any public audit of their expenditure.
Between 1932 and 1976, the Social Democrats were in office continuously - except for an interregnum of 100 days in 1936. Between 1933 and 1936, they had a working agreement with the Center Party. Coalition governments of Social Democrats and the Center Party were in power in 1936-1939 and 1951-1957. During World War II, 1939-1945, all parties except the Communists were represented in a coalition government. During the years 1945-1951 and 1957-1976, the Social Democrats were in office alone.
In the 1976 elections, the non-socialist parties together won a majority of parliamentary seats. The Social Democratic Government resigned and was succeeded by a coalition made up of the Center, the Moderates and the Liberal Party. The Center Party chairman became Prime Minister. After two years in office, this coalition Government was succeeded by a Liberal Party minority Government. In the 1979 elections, the non-socialist parties together kept the majority of parliamentary seats with the narrowest margin possible (175 out of 349). A new three-party coalition Government was formed. In the spring of 1981, the Moderate Party left the Government. In the 1982 elections, the non-socialist parties lost their majority of parliamentary seats. The coalition Government was succeeded by a Social Democratic minority Government (166 out of 349 seats). After the 1985 elections, the Social Democrats remained in power (159 seats), as well as after the 1988 elections when they won 156 seats.
In the 1991 elections, the Social Democrats received only 138 seats and the Government was succeeded by a non-socialist minority Government made up of the Moderates, Liberals, Center and Christian Democrats (with a total of 170 seats). In the 1994 election three of the four coalition parties lost seats and the Government resigned. The Social Democrats (with 161 seats) formed a new minority Government.
All political organizations enjoy full freedom and all democratic rights.
The freedom of the press has no limits in Sweden as far as politics is concerned. Almost half the daily pressin terms of circulation figures supports the Liberal Party or has a political philosophy mainly reflecting Liberal values, while just under one quarter favors the Moderates and another quarter the Social Democrats. The Center and other parties have relatively few newspapers.
The above applies especially to organizations representing blue-collar workers, salaried employees, women, employers, consumers' and producers' cooperatives, smallholders, industry, business, the wholesale and retail trades, tenants, landlords, etc.
Since 1977, the unions representing civil servants have enjoyed certain rights to negotiate with the State in its role as an employer concerning planned reforms and the like which may affect the employees' working conditions. However, contracts which infringe on political democracy are not permitted.
At the top level, in the Government Office, leading personalities from management and labor, industry and trade, etc., are invited to serve on certain advisory committees. Thus they sit on consultative bodies for matters relating to employment policies, construction issues etc.
It would seem that "pressure groups" in Sweden should not really be called by that name, since they constitute a regular part of the democratic system itself. Not only are they involved in public discussion, but they also play a responsible part in actual administration at all levels.
Between national and municipal government is a regional level of government, composed of 24 counties (län). The national administration in each of these counties is represented by a county governor (landshövding) and a county administrative board (länsstyrelse). The county governors are appointed by the Government for six-year terms; they are often chosen from among politicians but normally leave the political scene upon their appointment.
The most important business of a county administration is transacted by the board in which the county governor is chairman. The board members are appointed by the county council (landsting).
For certain tasks of a fundamentally local character, each county has an elected county council. These assemblies are responsible primarily for health care, including the provision of hospital services, certain types of education and vocational training. The county councils are entitled to impose an income tax to cover their expenses.
Since the 1976 elections immigrants resident for three years in Sweden have had the right to vote and run for office in local electionsboth for municipalities and county councils.
In 1994 it was decided that starting in 1997 the fiscal year shall be equal to the calendar year. The budget proposal will then have to be introduced in Parliament in September, so that a decision can be reached in December. As a consequence Parliament will have to convene in mid- September.
Tables on Outcome of parliamentary elections and Parties in the Cabinet since 1945 which are included in the printed version, do no appear in the Internet edition of this fact sheet.
This fact sheet is published by the SI and may be used in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc. on condition that the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Sweden, January 1995
Classification: FS 55 u Oc
ISRN SI-FS--95/55-U--SE
ISSN 1101-6124
